MITF can be regulated by different signalling pathways, including the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/protein kinase A (PKA) signalling pathway [25], the stem cell factor (SCF)/c-kit mediated signalling pathway [26,27] and the wingless-related integration site (Wnt)/-catenin signalling pathway [28]
For inflammatory bowel disease, mesalamine, corticosteroids, immunomodulators (azathioprine, methotrexate), and biologics (infliximab, adalimumab, vedolizumab, ustekinumab) all have Level 1 evidence from Phase III trials with thousands of patients
ROS-mediated oxidative stress promotes mitochondrial dysfunction, fostering a self-reinforcing cycle where increased ROS generation perpetuates lipids, proteins and DNA oxidation, thereby exacerbating cellular injury [231]
These include CTLA-4 mediated interference with antigen-presenting cell function to limit costimulatory signals [113], the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines that directly inhibit Th2 and Th17 proliferation and effector functions, and the constitutive expression of high CD25 levels, enabling competitive consumption of IL-2 and the restriction of effector T-cell expansion [114]
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