Particle size, penetration rate and effects of smoke and smokeless tobacco productsAn invitro analysis
9, 2001, as amended at 75 FR 49863, Aug
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Some authors argued, along the typical apologetic axis of some mestizaje theories, that racial discrimination becomes virtually impossible, since a majority of the people are of mixed Indian, white, and Negro blood, while at the same time arguing for the predominance of class over race: Dividing Puerto Ricans into socio-economic classes is perhaps simpler than separating them according to race.Footnote 19 Some saw a racial system in which anybody with a drop of white blood is a white man.Footnote 20 Some viewed racial discrimination as a middle- and upper-class phenomenon exclusively: Apart from small groups of the middle and upper class any ordinary gathering of Puerto Ricans represents a striking and unmistakable example of the complete acceptance of social intermingling of people of different color and racial characteristics.Footnote 21 Sidney Mintz argued that an individuals color may vary according to their socioeconomic status in a system in which racial criteria could not be completely disentangled from socioeconomic status criteria.Footnote 22 While Mintz circumscribed his findings to the Puerto Rican rural working class, other studies examining upper segments of society found very distinct patterns of racial discrimination.Footnote 23 Eric Williams, the paramount historian of the Caribbean, argued similarly that the absence of legal discrimination against the Negro arises from the fact that racial differences are subordinate to those of class. Thus it is that, by virtue of the absence of legal discrimination, the high degree of social mobility, the emphasis on class and the political equality that prevails, unity among Negroes on the race question does not exist in Puerto Rico.Footnote 24 While some of these studies pointed to socio-economic differences organized by race, for example the observation that colored workers were overrepresented in the population of urban slums,Footnote 25 none of the studies quoted above contained systematic quantitative assessments of racial inequality in income or living conditions
