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Rather than targeting one receptor or one pathway (like most drugs), GHK-Cu orchestrates a coordinated shift in gene expression across 31.2% of the genome

The level of statistical significance was taken as = 0.05

Importantly, pentadecapeptide BPC 157 was more active than recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF-BB), stimulating both expression of early growth response 1 (egr-1) gene and its repressor nerve growth factor 1-A binding protein-2 (NAB2) (18)

Sections were again washed and mounted with medium containing DAPI (Sigma, St Louis, MO)

Abbreviations HDAC: Histone deacetylase PTM: Protein post-translational modification SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids GPCRs: G protein-coupled receptors AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase PPAR: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor Cro: Crotonase/enoyl-CoA hydratase 4hbD: 4-hydroxybutyryl dehydratase Gcd: Glutaconyl-CoA decarboxylase Kal: 3-aminobutyryl-CoA ammonia lyase Ptb: Phosphotransbutyrylase Buk: Butyrate kinase EtfAB/Bcd: Electron transferring flavoprotein/butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase BCoAT: Butyryl-CoA: acetate CoA-transferase Ldh: Lactate dehydrogenase Pfor: Pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase ACAT1: Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase 1 SCHAD: Short-chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase NaBu: Sodium butyrate HMGCS2: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase 2 CPT1A: Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 A MCT: Proton-coupled monocarboxylate transporter SMCT: Sodium-coupled monocarboxylate cotransporter ES: Estrone sulfate ACSS: Short-chain acyl-coenzyme A synthetase SCAD: Short-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase ECHS1: Enoyl-CoA hydratase, short chain 1 Kac: Lysine acetylation Kcr: Lysine crotonylation Kbu: Lysine butyrylation H3K9ac: Histone H3K9 acetylation H3K9bu: Histone H3 lysine 9 butyrylation CBP/p300: CREB-binding protein/E1A binding protein p300 H3K9cr: Histone 3-lysine 9-crotonylation DKD: Diabetic kidney disease HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma Nrf2: Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 USP5: Ubiquitin-specific protease 5 TRAF6: Tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 TXNIP: Thioredoxin-interacting protein HAMS: High-amylose maize starch HAMSB: Butylated starch FBA: N-(1-carbamoyl-2-phenyl-ethyl) butyramide TB: Tributyrin STLs: Butyrate-containing structured lipids BNP: Butyric acid-based nanoparticles PEG-NPs: Polyethylene glycol-modified nanoparticles Bu-PEG NPs: Butyrate-functionalized PEG NPs INS: Insulin Sema: Semaglutide BU-NP@INS: Insulin-loaded Bu-PEG NPs BU-NP@Sema: Semaglutide-loaded Bu-PEG NPs BU-NP@Sor: Sorafenib-loaded nanoparticles with butyrate modification RBE: Resveratrol butyrate esters ACA: 1-acetoxychavicol acetate APAP: Acetaminophen GP: Genipin SIL: Silybin DPPC: 1,2-dihexadecanoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine DSPE-PEG 5k : 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-5000) PEG: Polyethylene glycol NAFLD: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease FGF21: Fibroblast growth factor 21 AS: Atherosclerosis Tbx21: T-box transcription factor 21 TILs: Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes PD-1: Programmed cell death protein 1 CD28: Cluster of differentiation 28 FAO: Fatty acid oxidation Cxcr5: C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 5 Bcl6: B-cell lymphoma 6 Tcf7: T-cell factor 7 IL-1: Interleukin-1 Apaf-1: Apoptotic protease activating factor-1 STAT1: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 PD-L1: Programmed death-ligand 1 HIE: Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy GPX4: Glutathione peroxidase 4 IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease UC: Ulcerative colitis 5-ASA: Mesalazine/5-aminosalicylic acid BMI: Body mass index MASLD: Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease References Cummings JH, Pomare EW, Branch WJ, Naylor CP, Macfarlane GT