The main cellular sources of ROS are (1) mitochondria, where electron-transport-chain (ETC) leads ROS production through leakage of electrons during oxidative phosphorylation, (2) NADPH oxidases (NOXes), which generate superoxide and hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) through transferring electrons from NADPH donors to oxygen, regulating both immune response and homeostatic ROS signalling (3) peroxisomes, which produce H 2 O 2 as a byproduct during breakdown of metabolic reactions such as breakdown of fatty acids and (4) xanthine oxidase, which generates superoxide and H 2 O 2 as a byproduct of oxidative hydroxylation of hypoxanthine in purine metabolism
J Pharm Sci 78:165171 Hevener AL, Olefsky JM, Reichart D, Nguyen MA, Bandyopadyhay G, Leung H-Y, Watt MJ, Benner C, Febbraio MA, Nguyen A-K (2007) Macrophage PPAR is required for normal skeletal muscle and hepatic insulin sensitivity and full antidiabetic effects of thiazolidinediones
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